Polycystic ovarian syndrome or PCOS is one of the most common reproductive conditions in women, and its symptoms include cystic ovaries, menstrual irregularities, and elevated androgen or male sex hormone levels. During the 1930s, Irving Freiler Stein and Michael Leventhal identified the syndrome and its symptoms. Women who experience symptoms of PCOS may also experience secondary symptoms, including infertility and diabetes. Though estimates vary and the causes of the syndrome are not clear as of 2017, PCOS affects approximately ten percent of women of reproductive age. Women who suspect they have symptoms of PCOS should see a doctor, as early treatment may help prevent long-term implications such as infertility, diabetes, and some types of cancers.

Gestational diabetes is a medical condition that causes blood sugar levels to become abnormally high, which manifests for the first-time during pregnancy and typically disappears immediately after birth for around ninety percent of affected women. While many women with the condition do not experience any noticeable symptoms, some may experience increased thirst and urination. Although gestational diabetes is treatable, if left unmanaged, the resulting fetus is more likely to have elevated risks of increased birth weight, birth injuries, low blood sugar, stillbirth, and later development of type 2 diabetes. The International Diabetes Federation estimates that worldwide in 2019, gestational diabetes affected one in six pregnant women, with many cases occurring in women living in low and middle-income countries. Despite the prevalence and risks associated with gestational diabetes, as of 2020, researchers have yet to reach a unified consensus on the best guidelines for diagnosis and treatment.