Henry Hubert Turner was a physician and researcher who studied hormones and human development in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, during the twentieth century. He was one of the first people to classify Turner syndrome, which is a genetic condition that occurs when someone has a specific atypical chromosomal pattern, and as of 2024, affects one in 1,500 to 2,500 female births. Turner syndrome results in a biological female completely or partially missing one of their X chromosomes. Many researchers label it an intersex condition, or a condition in which someone has atypical male or female sex characteristics, such as different sex chromosome patterns. During his career, Turner encountered multiple patients with a specific set of symptoms, including stunted sexual development, webbed neck, and elbow deformities, and he was unable to place those symptoms under one existing diagnosis. So, he categorized those symptoms as a new syndrome, which researchers later named Turner syndrome. By identifying Turner syndrome as a developmental condition, Turner helped future physicians develop treatments and diagnostic tools that can improve the lives of individuals with various developmental disorders.

In 1998, researchers Laura Mazzanti and Emanuele Cacciari published “Congenital Heart Disease in Patients with Turner’s Syndrome,” hereafter “Congenital Heart Disease,” in The Journal of Pediatrics. Turner syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by a missing X chromosome and affects one in 1,500 to 2,500 female births. Turner syndrome can result in various developmental issues, such as stunted physical and sexual growth, infertility, and congenital heart disease, or developmental malformations of the heart. At the time of publication, other researchers had established a link between congenital heart defects and Turner syndrome. However, there was little research on the relationship between what specific chromosomal pattern a person had and the types of congenital heart defects that a person presented with. “Congenital Heart Disease” established links between certain types of chromosomal patterns with various congenital heart defects, which the authors argue should allow for improved medical intervention and a better quality of life for people with Turner syndrome.

Hormone replacement therapy, or HRT, is a form of medication often used to treat the symptoms of menopause. According to the National Institute on Aging, menopause is the point in a female’s life twelve months after she has had her last period. The time leading up to menopause, often called perimenopause, is a transition stage when levels of sex hormones, namely estrogen and progesterone, begin to fall. For approximately eighty-five percent of menopausal females, that decline results in symptoms such as vaginal dryness, shifting moods, and hot flashes, or an abrupt feeling of warmth typically in the upper body. HRT replenishes a person’s sex hormones, and though there are many methods of HRT, people most commonly take a pill that contains either estrogen only or both estrogen and progesterone. HRT has evolved scientifically but has at times resulted in controversy over potential side effects. Despite historical controversy, as of 2024, researchers recognize that with careful consideration of an individual's health conditions and history, HRT can be an effective treatment for menopausal symptoms.

In 1938, physician Henry Hubert Turner published “A Syndrome of Infantilism, Congenital Webbed Neck, and Cubitus Valgus,” hereafter “A Syndrome of Infantilism,” in the journal Endocrinology, in which he described a condition that researchers later named Turner syndrome. Turner syndrome is a genetic condition that affects biological females, characterized by a partially or completely missing X chromosome. In the paper, Turner describes a previously unrecognized set of symptoms in seven different females, including a lack of physical and sexual development, infertility, webbed neck, and elbow deformities, among others. Turner also records various methods of hormone treatments for his patients, such as growth hormone and estrogen injections. “A Syndrome of Infantilism” was one of the first published descriptions of Turner syndrome, a developmental condition that affects one in 2,500 live female births globally, and highlighted the use of hormone treatments to promote the development of stunted physical and sexual growth.

In 1991, the US National Institutes of Health, or NIH, launched the Women’s Health Initiative, or WHI, which is one of the largest and one of the first long-term, nationwide studies of health conditions affecting postmenopausal females in the United States. Menopause is defined as the point in time twelve months after a female has had her last menstrual period. After menopause, females face higher risks of certain conditions, such as cardiovascular diseases. In 1991, Bernadine Healy, a physician who studied cardiology, became the first female director of the NIH and founded the WHI because she observed that research into female health was lacking. The WHI initiated several clinical trials to study whether changing diet, taking supplements, or undergoing hormone therapy could alleviate menopause symptoms. The trial of hormone therapy identified risks associated with that treatment and generated controversy. Despite the controversy, the WHI was one of the first organizations to produce comprehensive research into treatments and preventative methods for menopause symptoms, thereby improving healthcare options for postmenopausal females. 

In 1959, Charles Edmund Ford and colleagues published “A Sex Chromosome Anomaly in a Case of Gonadal Dysgenesis (Turner’s Syndrome),” hereafter “A Sex Chromosome Anomaly,” in The Lancet. Turner syndrome is a chromosomal disorder that affects one in 2,000 female births and results in developmental issues such as short stature, infertility, and congenital heart disease. Prior to “A Sex Chromosome Anomaly,” researchers did not know the cause of Turner syndrome, but Ford and colleagues found that the cause is a sex chromosome irregularity. In the article, the team explains that they examined the cells of a person with Turner syndrome and determined that she had just one X chromosome instead of the typical two. Thus, they concluded that the cause of Turner syndrome is a missing X chromosome and called for a new classification of the condition. “A Sex Chromosome Anomaly” was one of the first papers to identify the cause of Turner syndrome, and it provided scientists with a better understanding of individuals with a nontypical sex chromosome pattern. 

Menopause is defined as the point in time exactly twelve months after a female has had her last menstrual period, or shedding of the lining of the uterus. As a female ages, the hormone levels that drive menstruation decrease, beginning the process of perimenopause, which eventually leads to menopause and can result in various symptoms including depression, difficulty sleeping, and hot flashes, or abrupt feelings of heat typically in the upper body. Once a female reaches menopause, those symptoms typically subside, but after menopause, the risk of other health conditions such as osteoporosis, or brittle bones, increases. At least since the fourth century BCE, researchers understood that menopause occurred in females but held many negative ideas and misconceptions about the process, which resulted in stigma that left females uninformed about what happened to their bodies as they aged. Research on and perceptions towards menopause evolved over the twentieth century, and as of 2024, researchers understand it as a typical part of aging and development in females, marking the end of their reproductive years.